Risk of Woman Getting Sexually Assulted Peer Reviewed
Am J Public Wellness. 2015 December; 105(12): 2430–2437.
Sexual Violence in America: Public Funding and Social Priority
Abstract
We compared lifetime risk, annual incidence, and annual economic brunt of sexual violence with other major public health problems in the Usa: cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and HIV/AIDS.
With public funding data from 2013, nosotros examined how much public funding is allocated to these public wellness issues as a proxy of the social priority of addressing each of them.
Although sexual violence is every bit prevalent as and more costly than are these other major public health bug, it receives a fraction of the public funds that they receive.
Before 1995–1996, when the Centers for Illness Control and Prevention (CDC) and the National Constitute of Justice conducted the National Violence Confronting Women Survey,1 no nationally established mechanism for routine identification, recording, and monitoring of sexual violence existed.2 Considering of the complication of the violence landscape, lifetime risk and annual incidence rates of gender-based violence varied widely between studies predicated on geographical region, how violence was defined, the population under examination, and the methodology used to collect data.iii
Currently, the CDC partners with the National Institute of Justice to assess experiences of intimate partner violence, sexual violence, and stalking via the National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS). The NISVS is an ongoing, yearlong survey that uses random digit punch to all landlines and cell phones. Respondents surveyed are noninstitutionalized English- and Spanish-speaking United states adults (aged 18 years and older) in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. In 2011, fourteen 155 interviews were started and 12 727 interviews were completed; 54% of the respondents were women.
According to the NISVS,1 almost 1 in 5 women in the United States (xix.iii%) has been raped at least once in her life, including completed and attempted forced penetration. The vast majority (78.vii%) of women reported that their first rape occurred earlier they were anile 25 years, and xl.4% were raped earlier aged 18 years. This suggests that a pregnant proportion of the rape in America tin be classified as child sexual abuse. In the final 12 months of the survey, one.half-dozen% of women reported existence raped by any perpetrator. Additionally, near ane in 2 women (43.nine%) reported experiencing at to the lowest degree i episode of sexual violence other than rape or attempted rape at some point in her life, and more than i in 20 women (5.v%) reported experiencing sexual violence other than rape or attempted rape in the last 12 months of the survey.1 Considering there was a population of 118.89 million women aged xviii years and older in the United States in 2011,four the NISVS results point that approximately ane.9 million women are raped and 6.54 1000000 women feel sexual violence other than rape annually.
The NISVS too collects data on male victims, of whom 1.7% report beingness raped (completed and attempted forced penetration) at least in one case in their lives. Also, 23.4% of men report experiencing at least 1 episode of sexual violence other than rape or attempted rape at some point in their lives, and 5.one% of men reported experiencing sexual violence other than rape or attempted rape within the concluding 12 months of the survey.1 There was an insufficient case count of men reporting rape in the preceding 12 months to produce a statistically reliable prevalence gauge on this measure.ane Considering there was a population of 112.3 million men aged 18 years and older in the United states in 2011,iv the NISVS results betoken that approximately 5.73 million men experience sexual violence other than rape annually.
Bear on AND BURDEN—VICTIM Health
Exposure to violence is a significant contributing factor to chronic diseases, and individuals with chronic health problems generate a larger fiscal burden on the health intendance system.v In a study comparing wellness plans, battered women generated approximately 92% more costs per year than did nonbattered women, with mental health services bookkeeping for most of the costs.half dozen Co-ordinate to the NISVS,one just under 3 in 10 women (27.3%) reported at least 1 negative social bear upon related to experiencing rape or sexual violence, such as concern for ongoing safe, requiring professional person health intendance, utilizing victim advocate and legal services, contacting a crisis hotline, and missing work or school. Women who experience sexual violence are too at increased chance for numerous wellness problems, including trauma- and stress-related disorders, gastrointestinal disorders, reproductive organization disorders, autoimmune diseases, obesity and diabetes, and sexually transmitted infections.7
Numerous studies have corroborated the negative impact of sexual violence. Women who feel childhood sexual abuse or sexual violence are at greater risk for mental health bug (e.yard., chronic stress,8 depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, and other anxiety-spectrum disorders9), physical health problems (e.g., increased friability of vaginal tissue,10 increased risk of vaginal bleeding during pregnancy,11 depression infant birth weight12), and immune dysfunction and infectious diseases (eastward.grand., long-term immune organization dysfunction and chronic inflammation every bit indicated past increased C-reactive protein and interleukin-6,thirteen increased CD4+ cells in the cervical epithelium,14 changes to the vaginal and cervical mucosa that can increment the risk of HIV transmission,15 an inflammatory cascade and dysregulation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis that tin can increase HIV susceptibility and disease progression16).
Report PURPOSE
Because of the potent connexion between sexual violence and subsequent health outcomes, in 1996 the World Health Arrangement encouraged member states to view violence every bit a public health issue rather than a justice upshot.17,18
Nosotros compared lifetime chance, annual incidence, and annual economic burden of sexual violence to other major public health issues in the United states: cardiovascular affliction, cancer, diabetes, and HIV/AIDS. Nosotros chose the first two considering they are the most expensive medical conditions in the U.s.a., the tertiary considering of its high annual incidence, and the fourth considering, like violence, its spread requires interpersonal interaction (i.e., something that one person gives to or does to another person). We so examined how much annual public funding is allocated to each of these public wellness issues as a proxy of the social priority of addressing each of them.
METHODS
We conducted a literature and Internet search to find recent Us lifetime risk estimates for each of the targeted public health issues: cardiovascular disease (myocardial infarction, coronary insufficiency, angina, stroke, claudication),xix cancer diagnosis,xx diabetes diagnosis,21 contraction of HIV/AIDS,22 and rape and sexual violence other than rape.1
Nosotros then investigated annual US incidence estimates for each of the targeted public wellness issues: cardiovascular disease (heart attack and stroke),23,24 cancer diagnosis,25 diabetes diagnosis,26 contraction of HIV/AIDS,27 and rape and sexual violence other than rape.1 For rape and sexual violence other than rape, we used past year prevalence rates equally reported in the NISVS.1
For economic impact and brunt, we compared the estimated almanac economic brunt of cardiovascular disease,28 cancer,25 diabetes,29 HIV/AIDS,30 and rape and sexual violence other than rape in the United states.one These included existing estimates of directly costs (e.grand., infirmary and wellness care expenses, medications) besides every bit indirect costs (e.thousand., loss of income, caregiver costs).
We investigated the almanac amount of US public funding allocated to researching cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and HIV/AIDS for the year 2013,31,32 and we compared that to the annual amount of US public funding allocated to researching rape and sexual violence other than rape for the year 2013.31,33,34 For the rape and sexual violence category, nosotros likewise included all public funds allocated to addressing, preventing, and supporting victims of violence in full general.
To decide public funding equally a function of economic burden, we calculated the ratio of public funding to disease brunt for cardiovascular affliction, cancer, diabetes, HIV/AIDS, and rape and sexual violence other than rape as a proxy of the social priority of addressing each of these public wellness concerns in the U.s.. To make a straight economic comparison, nosotros used a consumer toll index inflation calculator to adjust all financial values to 2013 dollars.
RESULTS
Nosotros carried out 4 comparisons betwixt cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, HIV/AIDS, and rape and sexual violence other than rape: (1) lifetime take chances and annual incidence, (2) economical affect and burden, (three) public funding, and (four) public funding every bit a function of economic burden.
Lifetime Adventure and Almanac Incidence
Lifetime risk estimates for cardiovascular illness (myocardial infarction, coronary insufficiency, angina, stroke, claudication) from aged 50 years (as of 1971–2002),19 cancer diagnosis (every bit of 2009–2011),twenty diabetes diagnosis (as of 2000–2011),21 contraction of HIV/AIDS (equally of 2004–2005),22 and experience of rape and sexual violence other than rape (as of 2011)ane are shown in Figure one. Lifetime run a risk rates for sexual violence (other than rape and attempted rape) among women were very similar to lifetime risk rates for cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes. Lifetime risk rates for rape and attempted rape among women were approximately fifty% of the lifetime risk rates for cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes but 27 times higher than were lifetime risk rates for the contraction of HIV/AIDS.
Lifetime per centum risk of experiencing sexual violence, cardiovascular illness (myocardial infarction, coronary insufficiency, angina, stroke, claudication), cancer diagnosis, diabetes diagnosis, and wrinkle of HIV/AIDS: The states, 2013.
Figure 2 includes estimates of annual Usa incidence rates for cardiovascular disease and specifically centre attack or stroke (men and women combined; for 2015),23,24 cancer diagnosis (men and women; for 2014),25 diabetes diagnosis (men and women; for 2012),26 contraction of HIV/AIDS (men and women; for 2010),27 sexual violence other than rape (men and women; for 2011),1 and rape (women only; for 2011).1 The estimated annual incidence of experiencing sexual violence other than rape was approximately viii times higher than the annual incidence of cardiovascular disease, cancer diagnosis, and diabetes diagnosis, and it was 259 times higher than the annual incidence of contracting HIV/AIDS. Furthermore, the annual incidence of rape or attempted rape among women lonely (the NISVS did not provide this estimate for men) was higher than the annual incidence of cardiovascular illness, cancer, diabetes, and HIV/AIDS among men and women.
Annual incidence of sexual violence (women only), cardiovascular illness (heart set on and stroke), cancer diagnosis, diabetes diagnosis, and contraction of HIV/AIDS (men and women combined) in millions of people: Us, 2013.
Economic Impact and Burden
Cohen and Piquero35 separate the costs of victimization into
-
victim bear upon and costs;
-
medical arrangement costs;
-
criminal justice organisation investigation, arrest, adjudication, incarceration, parole, and probation;
-
lost earnings of both the victim and perpetrator; and
-
willingness to pay to foreclose future violence (prevention expenditures for personal security, avoidant behaviors to safeguard against victimization, 3rd-party costs of insurance, and government welfare programs).
Including all these categories, DeLisi36 estimated that each rape imposed Us $448 532 in victim, justice, and offender productivity and willingness to pay costs in 2008. Multiplying this figure past our approximate of 1.9 million annual rapes1 gives a total direct and indirect cost of $851.87 billion in 2008 Us dollars or $921.72 billion in 2013 United states of america dollars. Importantly, this value does not account for the economic burden of sexual violence excluding rape and attempted rape experienced by an estimated 12.three one thousand thousand women and men each year.1 The annual economic burden of rape or attempted rape compared with cardiovascular illness, cancer, diabetes, and HIV/AIDS are shown in Figure 3 (dark greyness bars).
Annual public funding for addressing, researching, or preventing sexual violence, cardiovascular affliction, cancer, diabetes, and HIV/AIDS: U.s.a., 2013.
Note. Left vertical centrality (black bars): annual economic burden of sexual violence (rape or attempted rape merely), cardiovascular affliction, cancer, diabetes, and HIV/AIDS. Right vertical axis (white bars): public research and program funding for all violence (i.e., sexual violence, youth violence, violence prevention, kid abuse or fail), cardiovascular illness (eye illness and stroke), cancer, diabetes, and HIV/AIDS. Percentage of annual public spending to annual economical burden for violence, cardiovascular disease (including center disease and strokes), cancer, diabetes, and HIV/AIDS is included above each set of bars.
The total direct and indirect cost of cardiovascular affliction in the United States for 2010 was estimated at $503.20 billion.28 Heidenreich et al.37 estimated the direct and indirect costs of cardiovascular disease (i.e., coronary heart affliction, hypertensive disease, stroke, heart failure) in the United States at $290.70 billion in 2010. We included the highest approximate in our results analysis, which was equivalent to $537.59 billion in 2013 US dollars.
The American Association for Cancer Research estimates that the overall costs of cancer to the U.s.a. in 2009 was $216.60 billion: $86.threescore billion for direct wellness expenditures and $130.00 billion for indirect mortality costs, such as lost productivity stemming from premature death.25 This was equivalent to $235.20 billion in 2013 U.s.a. dollars. The full costs of diagnosed diabetes in the Us was $245.00 billion in 2012, consisting of $176.00 billion for straight medical costs and $69.00 billion in reduced productivity.29 This was equivalent to $248.59 billion in 2013 United states of america dollars. The full costs associated with new HIV infections in the United States in 2002 was $36.40 billion, including $half dozen.lxx billion in straight medical costs and $29.seventy billion in productivity losses.30 This was equal to $47.14 billion in 2013 US dollars.
Rape and attempted rape amongst merely women in the Usa had ane.7 times the annual economical impact of cardiovascular disease, 3.9 and 3.seven times the annual economic impact of cancer and diabetes, respectively, and nineteen.6 times the annual economic touch of HIV/AIDS amidst both men and women in the U.s.a. (Effigy three, nighttime gray bars).
Public Funding
Through programs at the CDC, Department of Justice (DOJ), and National Institutes of Health (NIH), public funding directed at sexually based violence amounted to $822.4 meg in 2013. This total is cleaved down as follows: (1) DOJ, Office on Violence Confronting Women—$412.v meg in 201333 spread across 24 programs34 (these programs mostly adhere to the administration of justice and strengthening of services to victims, rather than attempting to reduce the risk and perpetration of initial violence against women); (two) CDC, National Heart for Injury Prevention and Control, Sectionalisation of Violence Prevention, Injury Prevention and Control—Intentional Injury Program ($88.4 one thousand thousand in 2013) and Injury Control Research Centers ($nine.5 million in 2013)31; and (3) NIH enquiry across general violence, violence against women, youth violence, youth violence prevention, and child abuse and neglect research—$312.0 million in 2013.32
According to the research, condition, and affliction categorization (RCDC) system, in 2013, the NIH had an judge annual upkeep of $137.000 million for violence, $31.000 1000000 for violence against women, $seventy.000 million for youth violence, $26.000 million for youth violence prevention, and $30.000 1000000 for kid abuse and neglect research.32 Although $ane.172 billion was allocated for bones behavioral and social science and $3.535 billion was allocated for behavioral and social science, we searched the research projection titles listed under these 2 categories (14 581 in total) to determine the proportion of behavioral and social scientific discipline funds allocated for gender-based violence. Nosotros institute 83 projects with at to the lowest degree 1 of the words "violence," "rape," or "set on" in the title, with full funding of $xviii.000 million in 2013—just 0.38% of the total funding in these 2 categories.32
Furthermore, the RCDC includes a funding category called "Women's Health," with 2013 funding of $3.745 billion.32 Co-ordinate to a RCDC footnote, this category covers studies that intermission results down past gender or ethnicity—that is, whatever report that tracked results between males and females. Furthermore, the note states: "The databases used to track gender/ethnicity are complex and are non currently compatible with the RCDC organization." Thus, we did non include any dollar values from this category in our NIH funding estimate for 2013.32
In 2013, the NIH allotted $1.96 billion for research into cardiovascular disease, $5.27 billion for cancer, $i.01 billion for diabetes, and $2.90 billion for HIV/AIDS.32 That same year, the CDC allocated $52.10 1000000 for heart disease and stroke prevention, $330.20 million for cancer prevention and command, $61.00 million for diabetes prevention, and $740.90 million for domestic HIV/AIDS prevention and enquiry.31
The annual public funding allocated for addressing, researching, or preventing sexual violence, cardiovascular illness, cancer, diabetes, and HIV/AIDS is shown in Figure 3 (white bars).
Public Funding as Function of Economic Burden
To gain a proxy of the social priority of addressing each public health issue, we calculated the percentage of annual public funding to annual economical burden for sexual violence, cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and HIV/AIDS. To determine the nearly conservative figures, nosotros included all public funding for violence across the DOJ, the CDC, and the NIH in this calculation, including funding for youth violence and child maltreatment. Furthermore, we included merely the estimated economic burden associated with rape and attempted rape ($921.72 billion).
HIV/AIDS had the greatest ratio of annual public spending to economic burden, at 7.72% (Figure three). Violence in general had the lowest ratio of almanac public spending to economic burden, at 0.09%. Critically, the economic brunt number used in this ratio was restricted to rape and attempted rape of women and did not business relationship for rape and attempted rape of men, sexual violence excluding rape and attempted rape, child maltreatment, and other forms of violence. If the economic brunt of these forms of violence were included, the ratio of annual public spending would be significantly lower.
Give-and-take
Every yr, between 12 and 14 one thousand thousand men, women, boys, and girls are victims of rape or sexual violence in the U.s..1,4 This figure is approximately 2.v times the almanac incidence of cardiovascular disease, cancer diagnosis, diabetes diagnosis, and wrinkle of HIV/AIDS combined.23–27 The immediate and long-term negative health impacts of violence victimization are pregnant and well documented, leading the World Wellness Organization to encourage member states to view violence as a public health issue rather than a justice issue.17,18 We estimated that in the The states rape and attempted rape alone have an touch that is i.7 times the almanac economic impact of cardiovascular disease, 3.9 and 3.vii times the almanac economical impact of cancer and diabetes, respectively, and 19.6 times the almanac economic impact of HIV/AIDS.
Despite this higher economic burden, total public funding across the CDC, the DOJ, and the NIH to address all forms of violence (i.due east., rape, nonrape sexual violence, youth violence, youth violence prevention, kid maltreatment) is approximately 42% of the amount both the NIH and the CDC directly to cardiovascular affliction, fifteen% of the amount they direct to cancer, 81% of the amount they direct to diabetes, and 23% of the amount they direct to HIV/AIDS. In 2013, funding to conduct research on all forms of violence was a tiny fraction of full NIH funding (0.001%) compared with the percentage of full NIH funding for cardiovascular illness (6.seventy%), cancer (17.99%), diabetes (iii.44%), and HIV/AIDS (9.89%).32
Dividing the total annual economic burden past the total public funding (CDC, DOJ, NIH, where appropriate) provides a rough proxy of the social priority of addressing each of these public wellness concerns. This analysis reveals that all forms of violence—not just sexual violence—receive just 0.09% of the estimated almanac economical burden of rape and attempted rape. This is a fraction of the ratio of annual public funds to economic burden allocated for cardiovascular affliction (0.37%), cancer (2.38%), diabetes (0.41%), and HIV/AIDS (7.72%).
Approximately half (l.2%) of public funding to accost violence in the United states is allocated through the DOJ. This indicates that violence against women continues to be significantly viewed from the paradigm of justice, which is primarily a matter for state laws and state resources, whereas funding for medical research is overwhelmingly federal. Thus, violence prevention is often wrapped upward in state budget processes for the criminal justice system, which is notoriously underfunded.
A focus on justice is important for tracking violence, capturing perpetrators, property perpetrators accountable, and protecting existing victims from revictimization. Considering of depression abort rates for sexual assault, increasing the criminal justice arrangement response and prosecuting perpetrators is a disquisitional step in addressing revictimization.38 Although the CDC is more focused on preventing violence than is the DOJ (e.g., through initiatives such as their Rape Prevention and Education program), the level of public funding it allocates to these programs, at $97.88 one thousand thousand, remains a small fraction of the $412.50 million in public funds the DOJ directs to mostly postviolence support-based programs allocated through its Part on Violence Against Women.33
Limitations
There are numerous limitations to this report. Offset, nosotros drew all the data from secondary sources, making information technology incommunicable to compare public wellness data from the same year. We carried out extensive searches in an effort to include the about contempo available data, but we may non have succeeded in doing then. To brand meaningful fiscal comparisons, we transformed all dollar figures into 2013 amounts using the US Bureau of Labor Statistics online consumer cost index inflation calculator.
In that location are conceptual challenges in comparing violence to cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes. Notwithstanding different etiologies and courses, they are fundamentally different in feel. Violence is necessarily an interpersonal phenomenon, whereas cardiovascular affliction, cancer, and diabetes are individually experienced diseases. To at least partially address this concern, we included HIV/AIDS in the analysis for comparison with a public health problem with an interpersonal component (i.east., HIV/AIDS is something that 1 person gives to another person). Certainly, we could accept included other public health issues (e.g., flu, hepatitis, anxiety disorders) in our analysis, just such an exhaustive comparison was beyond the scope of this study.
Finally, the fundamental differences betwixt violence and cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and, to a bottom extent, HIV/AIDS prompts the question of what increased spending to address the violence problem would look like. With AIDS, scientists and policymakers realize that finding a vaccine might cure the illness among those who accept information technology and certainly would eliminate its scourge from future generations. How do we eliminate the scourge of violence without an equivalent vaccine template? Every bit is the process with infectious diseases, mayhap the reply lies in researching and agreement the underlying causes of violence so that effective prevention programs can be engineered and implemented. First, a paradigm shift in how nosotros view violence—from that of a justice issue to a public health issue—may be needed.
Conclusions
Nearly 2 decades after the World Health Organization declared violence a public wellness rather than a justice issue, the United States continues to classify public funds for addressing violence as much from a justice paradigm equally from a public health image. Even when justice expenditures for addressing violence are included with health research expenditures, public funds allocated to sexual violence are a fraction of those allocated to other major public health issues, such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes, despite the like incidence, prevalence, and economic burden between them.
The reasons for this disparity are circuitous and beyond the scope of this written report. Our goal was to highlight the ongoing disparity, promote further discussion of the best way forward in addressing sexual violence and its many poor wellness outcomes, and advocate further funding to examine the factors associated with violence with the goal of prevention rather than intervention.
Acknowledgments
We give thanks Calum Macpherson and the Windward Islands Inquiry and Instruction Foundation for supporting this project.
We presented partial results from this study at the 12th Globe Congress in Bioethics in Mexico City in 2014 and the Caribbean Public Wellness Bureau Sixtieth Conference in Grenada in 2015.
The authors give thanks Ruth Macklin for feedback and edits on earlier versions of the article.
Human Participant Protection
No protocol blessing was necessary because no human participants were involved in this report.
References
1. Centers for Disease Command and Prevention. Prevalence and characteristics of sexual violence, stalking, and intimate partner violence victimization—National Intimate Partner And Sexual Violence Survey, United States, 2011. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2014;63(8):ane–18. [PMC costless commodity] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
2. Basile KC, Smith SG, Breiding MJ, Black MC, Mahendra RR. Sexual Violence Surveillance: Uniform Definitions and Recommended Information Elements, Version 2.0. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Command and Prevention; 2014. [Google Scholar]
iii. Koss MP, Gidycz CA, Wisniewski N. The telescopic of rape: incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher pedagogy students. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1987;55(2):162–170. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
5. Nolte Eastward, McKee M. Caring for People With Chronic Weather condition: A Health System Perspective. Berkshire, England: McGraw Hill Open University Press; 2008. [Google Scholar]
6. Wisner CL, Gilmer TP, Saltzman LE, Zink TM. Intimate partner violence confronting women: practice victims cost health plans more? J Fam Pract. 1999;48(6):439–443. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
8. Campbell J, Jones AS, Dienemann J et al. Intimate partner violence and physical health consequences. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162(x):1157–1163. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
nine. Trickett PK, Noll JG, Putnam FW. The impact of sexual abuse on female person development: lessons from a multigenerational, longitudinal research study. Dev Psychopathol. 2011;23(2):453–476. [PMC gratis article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
10. Hwang LY, Scott ME, Ma Y, Moscicki AB. Higher levels of cervicovaginal inflammatory and regulatory cytokines and chemokines in healthy young women with immature cervical epithelium. J Reprod Immunol. 2011;88(1):66–71. [PMC complimentary commodity] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
xi. Moraes CL, Reichenheim Thousand, Nunes AP. Astringent physical violence among intimate partners: a chance factor for vaginal bleeding during gestation in less privileged women? Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2009;88(9):1041–1048. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
12. Shah PS, Shah JKnowledge Synthesis Group on Determinants of Preterm Births/LBW Births. Maternal exposure to domestic violence and pregnancy and birth outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analyses J Womens Health (Larchmt) 201019 112017–2031. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
13. Bertone-Johnson ER, Whitcomb BW, Missmer SA, Karlson EW, Rich-Edwards JW. Inflammation and early-life abuse in women. Am J Prev Med. 2012;43(six):611–620. [PMC gratis article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
14. Prakash M, Patterson S, Gotch F, Kapembwa MS. Recruitment of CD4 T lymphocytes and macrophages into the cervical epithelium of women later coitus. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;188(2):376–381. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
15. Sharkey DJ, Tremellen KP, Jasper MJ, Gemzell-Danielsson Yard, Robertson SA. Seminal fluid induces leukocyte recruitment and cytokine and chemokine mRNA expression in the human cervix after coitus. J Immunol. 2012;188(5):2445–2454. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
xvi. Campbell JC, Lucea MB, Stockman JK, Draughon JE. Forced sexual practice and HIV risk in violent relationships. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2013;69(suppl one):41–44. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
eighteen. Krug EG, Dahlberg LL, Mercy JA, Zwi AB, Lozano R. Earth Written report on Violence and Health. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2002. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
19. Lloyd-Jones DM, Leip EP, Larson MG et al. Prediction of lifetime run a risk for cardiovascular affliction by risk cistron brunt at 50 years of historic period. Circulation. 2006;113(vi):791–798. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
21. Gregg EW, Zhuo X, Cheng YJ et al. Trends in lifetime take chances and years of life lost due to diabetes in the United states, 1985–2011: a modelling study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2014;2(11):867–874. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
22. Hall HI, An Q, Hutchinson AB, Sansom S. Estimating the lifetime take a chance of a diagnosis of the HIV infection in 33 states, 2004–2005. J Acquir Allowed Defic Syndr. 2008;49(iii):294–297. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
23. Centers for Disease Command and Prevention. Stroke facts. 2015. Available at: http://world wide web.cdc.gov/stroke/facts.htm. Accessed May 24, 2015.
24. Mozaffarian D, Benjamin EJ, Get Every bit et al. Center disease and stroke statistics—2015 update: a study from the American Eye Association. Circulation. 2015;131(4):e29–e322. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
25. Arteaga CL, Adamson PC, Engelman JA et al. AACR cancer progress report 2014. Clin Cancer Res. 2014;20(xix suppl):S1–S112. [PMC costless article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
28. Lloyd-Jones D, Adams RJ, Brown TM et al. AHA statistical update: heart disease and stroke statistics—2010 update. Circulation. 2010;121:e46–e215. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
29. American Diabetes Association. Economic costs of diabetes in the U.S. in 2012. Diabetes Care. 2013;36(4):1033–1046. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
thirty. Hutchinson AB, Farnham PG, Dean HD et al. The economic burden of HIV in the United States in the era of highly agile antiretroviral therapy: prove of standing racial and ethnic differences. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;43(iv):451–457. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
32. National Institutes of Health. Estimates of funding for various research, condition, and affliction categories. 2015. Bachelor at: http://study.nih.gov/categorical_spending.aspx. Accessed January 27, 2015.
35. Cohen MA, Piquero AR. New evidence on the monetary value of saving a high take a chance youth. J Quant Criminol. 2009;25:25–49. [Google Scholar]
36. DeLisi K, Kosloski A, Sween M, Hachmeister E, Moore Yard, Drury A. Murder past numbers: monetary costs imposed past a sample of homicide offenders. J Foren Psychi Psych. 2010;21(4):501–513. [Google Scholar]
37. Heidenreich PA, Trogdon JG, Khavjou OA et al. Forecasting the futurity of cardiovascular illness in the United states of america: a policy statement from the American Center Association. Circulation. 2011;123(viii):933–944. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
Manufactures from American Journal of Public Health are provided here courtesy of American Public Health Association
Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4638240/
0 Response to "Risk of Woman Getting Sexually Assulted Peer Reviewed"
Post a Comment